October 2009
Changing concepts in caries microbiology
Roy R.
Russell, ba, phd,
fdsrcs
Abstract: Concepts and beliefs about the
cause of dental caries have evolved over many centuries, with the involvement
of microorganisms being recognized since the late 1800s. A main thrust of
enquiry since then has been to tackle the question of the relative importance
of different bacteria in the disease and this article will consider how
technical advances in our ability to identify, cultivate and count different
species has influenced our understanding. Over the last decade, molecular
biological approaches have had a major impact on views of the relative
contribution of particular species of plaque bacteria to the caries process. At
a more detailed level, molecular genetic studies of species such as Streptococcus mutans have given new
insights into the way in which particular genes and the functions that they
encode may affect virulence. (Am J Dent 2009;22:304-310).
Clinical
significance: An
understanding of the bacteria involved in the initiation and progression of
dental caries is essential for a rational approach to developing
microbiological markers of risk, monitoring the effect of interventions and
devising control measures.
*: Prof. Roy R.B. Russell, Oral Biology, School of Dental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4BW United Kingdom. E-*: r.r.russell@ncl.ac.uk
Research
Article
Surface roughness of enamel and four resin
composites
Ana Carolina Botta, dds, ms, phd, Sillas Duarte Jr, dds, ms, phd, Pedro Iris Paulin Filho, dds, ms, phd,
Abstract: Purpose: To assess
surface roughness of resin composites submitted to different polishing
techniques compared to intact human enamel. Methods: Nanofilled (Filtek Supreme XT), microhybrid (Point 4),
hybrid (Tetric Ceram), and microfilled (Durafill VS) resin composites were
selected. Four polishing techniques were tested (T0: Mylar matrix – control;
T1: aluminum oxide discs; T2: felt + diamond paste; T3: aluminum oxide discs +
felt + diamond paste) with each resin composite. The specimens were assigned to
16 experimental groups and one control group (n=4). Flat buccal surfaces of
four human maxillary central incisors were used for the analysis of enamel
roughness and served as control. The mean roughness was evaluated under atomic
force microscopy in the contact mode. The obtained data were submitted to
Student’s t-test, ANOVA, and Tukey’s
Test, at 0.05 level of significance. Results: The roughness of enamel was
46.6 ± 10.7 nm. The smoothest surface was obtained for the Mylar matrix with
nanofiller (23.6 ± 3.0 nm), microhybrid (12.8 ± 1.4 nm), or hybrid resin (15.2
± 1.9 nm). Microfilled resin showed the lowest roughness with aluminum oxide
discs (43.0 ± 5.2 nm). Diamond paste increased the roughness of composites,
whereas aluminum oxide discs yielded the smoothest surfaces. (Am J Dent 2009;22:252-254).
Clinical significance: Aluminum oxide discs are
recommended as the standard polishing technique for all resin composites,
except for hybrid resin, because this instrumentation yields a surface
comparable to that of the prisms in human enamel.
*: Dr. Sillas Duarte, Jr., Department of Comprehensive Care, Case Western Reserve University School of Dental Medicine, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106-4905. E-*: sillas.duarte@case.edu
Research
Article
Optimization of the
marginal gap of all-ceramic restorations
and gold crowns by ultrasound activated, suspended Al2O3 powder
Sabine S. Linsen, dr med dent, Daniela
Wirtz, dr med dent, Carola
Fischer, dr med dent & Bernd
Koeck, prof dr med dent
Abstract: Purpose: To
evaluate if the use of ultrasound activated Al2O3 powder
improved the fit especially of all-ceramic restorations. Methods: 21 extracted teeth were prepared for 14 all-ceramic IPS
Empress2 (IPS Empress2) restorations (four crowns, four partial crowns, two
inlays, four veneers) and seven gold crowns (Degudent H). Each restoration was
adjusted with a suspension of Al2O3 of 25 µm and 50 µm grit, respectively. The effect of the fitting
adjustments was recorded with the silicone disclosing medium technique and
measured at 11 points under the microscope in an interval of 0.4 mm. Results: A significant (P< 0.001)
improvement of the tight fit of all restorations by means of ultrasound
activated Al2O3 powder was noticed. The approach of the
restoration towards the prepared stump by the sonoerosive fitting correction
was in the mean 201 ± 60 µm in Empress2 restorations and 87 ± 24 µm in gold
crowns within a period of 10 minutes. SEM observation of the Empress2 specimens
showed no microdamage after ultrasound machining. (Am J Dent 2009;22:255-258).
Clinical significance: The sonoerosive fitting correction method described
in this study, using ultrasound activated Al2O3-powder,
proved to be an appropriate tool for non-destructive and highly accurate
fitting corrections especially in all-ceramic restorations.
*: Dr. Sabine
Linsen, Department of Prosthodontics, University of Bonn, Welschnonnenstr. 17, 53111
Bonn, Germany.
E-*: sabinelinsen@web.de
Research Article
Micro-shear bond strength of current one-step adhesives
to cementum and dentin
Hiroshi Okada, dds, Alireza Sadr, dds, phd, Yasushi Shimada, dds, phd & Junji Tagami, dds, phd
Abstract: Purpose: To investigate the bonding performance of current
one-step adhesives to human cementum and compare the results with those of
two-step adhesives. Methods: Four
commercially available adhesives were investigated: two one-step adhesives
(Clearfil Tri-S Bond and G-Bond), and two two-step adhesives: a self-etch
adhesive (Clearfil SE Bond) and a total-etch wet bonding adhesive (Adper Single
Bond). The cementum and dentin regions were chosen from the mesial surface of
extracted human molars and bonded with each adhesive. A micro-shear bond test
was employed to evaluate the bond strength in this study. Morphological
micrographs of cementum and dentin after etching, as well as bonded interfaces
were obtained using scanning electron microscopy. Results: The shear bond test results showed significantly lower
bonding of all adhesives when they were applied to cementum (P< 0.05). The
mean bond strength values in MPa obtained from dentin
and cementum were 33.7 and 26.7 for Clearfil Tri-S Bond, 28.9 and 22.4 for
G-Bond, 42.9 and 35.2 for Clearfil SE Bond and 38.6 and 32.5 for Adper Single
Bond, respectively. One-step adhesives showed significantly lower bond
strengths than two-step adhesives to both cementum and dentin (P< 0.05). (Am J Dent 2009;22:259-263).
Clinical significance: The bond
strengths of all adhesives were significantly decreased when they were applied
to cementum and the one-step adhesives showed lower bond strength compared to
two-step adhesives.
*: Dr. Hiroshi Okada, Cariology and Operative Dentistry, Department of Restorative Sciences, Graduate School, Tokyo Medical and Dental University 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8549, Japan. E-*: hokada890@gmail.com
Research
Article
Influence of mechanical and chemical degradation on
surface gloss
of resin composite materials
Stefano Ardu, dmd, Vedrana
Braut, dmd, Ivone Uhac, dmd, phd, Nacer
Benbachir, dmd,
Albert J. Feilzer, dmd, phd & Ivo
Krejci, dmd, phd
Abstract: Purpose: To determine the changes in surface gloss of different
composite materials after simulation of mechanical and chemical aging
mechanisms. Methods: 36 specimens
were fabricated for each material and polished with 120-, 220-, 500-, 1200-, 2400-
and 4000- grit SiC abrasive paper, respectively. Gloss measurements were made
with a glossmeter (Novo-Curve) prior to testing procedures. Specimens of each
material were randomly divided into three groups. Group 1 was conditioned for 7
days at 37°C in 75% ethanol aqueous solution. Group 2 was immersed in fluoride
gel (Elmex Gelée) at
Clinical significance: The gloss
of some restorative materials in anterior teeth can be affected by mechanical
and chemical agents.
*: Dr. Stefano Ardu, Division of
Cariology & Endodontology, Dental School, University of Geneva, Geneva,
Switzerland. E-*:
stefano.ardu@medecine.unige.ch
Research
Article
Optimal use of
silver nitrate and marginal leakage at the sealant-enamel interface using
micro-CT
Xi Chen,
dds, Vincent Cuijpers, bsc, MingWen Fan, dds, phd & Jo E. Frencken, dds, msc, phd
Abstract: Purpose: To investigate the optimal
silver nitrate concentration and tooth immersion period for assessing marginal
leakage at the sealant-enamel interface, using micro-CT. Methods: Two experiments were conducted, using eight teeth sealed
with a resin composite without etching, in dried but not desiccated, pits and
fissures. Five teeth were immersed in 50% silver nitrate for 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4
hours and scanned, using micro-CT, and two evaluators using a newly developed
index assessed marginal leakage at the sealant-enamel interface (Experiment A).
Experiment B was carried out in the same way as Experiment A, with the
difference that teeth were immersed in 50% and 60% silver nitrate for 2 and 3
hours. Reliability of scores was estimated, using weighted kappa coefficient.
ANOVA and t-test were applied to test
for period and concentration effects. Results: Reliability of collected data was substantial. A statistically significant
difference was observed between 50% silver nitrate penetration scores at 0-1
and 2-4 hours of immersion (P< 0.0001) but not between 50% silver nitrate
penetration scores at 2-, 3-, and 4-hours of immersion (P> 0.05) (experiment
A). Analysis in experiment B showed a period effect (P= 0.03) but no
concentration (P= 0.07) and interaction effect (P= 0.64). Combining all data
from 50% silver nitrate immersion, analysis showed no statistically significant
difference in penetration scores between 2, 3 and 4 hours of immersion (P= 0.33).
The newly developed index showed substantial reliability. (Am J Dent 2009;22:269-272).
Clinical significance: Three hours of immersion in 50%
silver nitrate can be used to optimally assess marginal leakage at the
sealant-enamel interface in vitro,
using micro-CT.
*: Prof. M. Fan, Key Laboratory
for Oral Biomedical Engineering, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan
University, 237 LuoYu Road, Wuhan 430079, China. E-*: kqyywjtx@public.wh.hb.cn; j.frencken@dent.umcn.nl
Research
Article
Effect of dual-cured adhesive resin cements on cell
proliferation
of pulp and human fibroblasts
Elisabeth A. Koulaouzidou, dds, phd, Maria Helvatjoglou-Antoniades, dds, phd, Georgios Palaghias, dds, phd
Abstract: Purpose: To comparatively evaluate the
effects of three dual activated adhesive resin cements on cell proliferation of
rat pulp cells (RPC-C2A) and human lung fibroblasts (MRC5). Methods: The cements tested were RelyX
ARC, RelyX Unicem and Panavia F. The cements were prepared according to
manufacturers’ instructions and placed in contact with the cells. Cell survival
was estimated by the sulphorhodamine-B staining assay after 24 and 72 hours and
cellular changes in morphology were examined under microscope. Results: All resin cements decreased
cell proliferation. The decrease observed was material- and
time-dependent. Panavia F was found more potent in decreasing cell
proliferation. Differences were found in the effect on cell proliferation among
the materials tested, that might be associated to their clinical behavior. (Am J Dent 2009;22:273-277).
Clinical significance: Differential cytotoxic effects
of dental resin cements should be considered during selection of an appropriate
material for clinical applications especially in sites in close proximity to
the dental pulp.
*: Dr. Elisabeth A. Koulaouzidou, 1 Xenofontos Street, GR 55132 Kalamaria, Thessaloniki, Greece. E-*: koulaouz@dent.auth.gr
Research
Article
Effect of a calcium
glycerophosphate fluoride dentifrice formulation
on enamel demineralization in situ
Livia Maria Andaló Tenuta, dds, phd, Maximiliano Sergio Cenci, dds, phd, Altair
A. Del Bel Cury, dds, phd, Tatiana
Pereira-Cenci, dds, phd, Cínthia
Pereira Machado Tabchoury, pharmd, phd, Gisele
Pedroso Moi, dds, msc & Jaime Aparecido Cury, dds, phd
Abstract: Purpose: To
evaluate in situ the effect and
mechanisms involved in the anticariogenic effect of a calcium glycerophosphate
fluoride dentifrice. Methods: In a
double-blind, crossover design, a non-F dentifrice (negative control), a F dentifrice and a F dentifrice containing 0.13% CaGP were
compared regarding the inhibition of enamel demineralization. Both F
dentifrices contained 1500 µg F/g (w/w) as sodium monofluorophosphate (MFP).
Bovine enamel blocks were mounted in contact with a S. mutans test plaque, in palatal appliances worn by 10 volunteers.
30 minutes after treatment with the dentifrices, a sucrose rinse was performed
and enamel demineralization was assessed after an additional 45 minutes. Results: No significant difference was
observed among groups in the calcium and inorganic phosphate concentrations in
the fluid phase of the test plaque 30 minutes after the dentifrice use (P>
0.05), but F concentration was significantly higher for both F dentifrices
(P< 0.05). Also, the dentifrices did not differ regarding the pH before or 5
minutes after the sugar challenge (P> 0.05). A higher mineral loss was
observed for the non-F dentifrice group (P< 0.05), but no significant
difference was observed between the F dentifrices containing CaGP or not (P>
0.05). Using this in situ model, the
findings suggested that CaGP at the concentration tested did not enhance the
inhibition of enamel demineralization promoted by F dentifrice. (Am J Dent 2009;22:278-282).
Clinical significance: Calcium glycerophosphate used
as an additive in F dentifrice does not seem to enhance its effect on
inhibition of enamel demineralization.
*: Dr. Livia M.A. Tenuta, Piracicaba Dental School, University of
Campinas – UNICAMP, P.O. Box 52, 13414-903 - Piracicaba, SP, Brazil. E-*: litenuta@fop.unicamp.br
Research Article
Novel method to
measure enamel surface porosity
with hydrogen peroxide bleaching
Zhiyu Yang, ms, Mingjian Zou, Xinhui Lin, bs, Xiaoda Yang, phd, Na Li, phd & Kui Wang,
bs
Abstract: Purpose: To
establish methods to quantitate the physical surface change, not the chemical
color bleaching change, of enamel occurring with hydrogen peroxide treatment in
solution and commercially available plastic strips. Methods: Bovine enamel was polished to a sound, uniform, optical
flat, white subsurface that was used as the initial substrate for all substrate
modification, treatment and instrumental measurement using digital
photography-image analysis, SEM and profilometry. Sound enamel was treated with
10, 20 and 30% solutions of hydrogen peroxide. Plastic strips were used to
treat both sound and acid modified enamel surfaces. Etched enamel, similar to a
10-second exposure to lemon juice, was treated with 0.5, 1, 3, 5, 10, and 15%
hydrogen peroxide for 24-hour exposure at 37ºC to obtain a dose response curve
to this modified enamel. Results: The digital photography-image analysis system and scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) were effective in detecting enamel surface porosity and structure
disruptive changes, respectively. Plastic strip treatment of both sound and
etched enamel produced little surface change. Measurable surface change of
etched enamel was detected with as low as 1% hydrogen peroxide in solution. The
surface change with 15% hydrogen peroxide was statistically significant. Dye
uptake as measured by image analysis indicated an increase in surface porosity
that was more evident with the acid modified surface. SEM studies were
consistent with this observation. (Am J
Dent 2009;22:283-289).
Clinical significance: Digital photography-image
analysis system was a sensitive, convenient approach to measure the physical
enamel surface change in porosity with hydrogen peroxide treatment. The enamel
surface change in porosity was a function of the enamel surface with sound
surface being more resistant than more porous enamel surfaces indicating the
importance of maintaining sound enamel surfaces.
*: Prof. Xiaoda Yang, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Science
Center of Peking University, Beijing, 100083, China. E-*: xyang@bjmu.edu.cn; lina@pku.edu.cn
Research Article
Resin cement thickness in oval-shaped
canals: Oval vs. circular fiber posts
in combination with different tips/drills for post
space preparation
Ivanovic Coniglio, dds, msc, Franklin Garcia-Godoy, dds, ms, Elisa Magni, dds, msc,
Carlos Augusto Carvalho, dds, msc & Marco Ferrari, md, dds, phd
Abstract: Purpose: To evaluate
the cement thickness around oval and circular posts luted in oval post spaces
prepared with different drills/tips. Methods: Extracted premolars were endodontically treated and obturated, then randomly
divided into three groups (n=5) according to the tips/drills used for
post-space preparation and to the type of fiber post luted: medium grit oval
tip + oval posts, fine grit oval tip + oval posts, Mtwo Post File drill +
circular posts. The specimens were sectioned in horizontal slices; one slice
per canal third was chosen for each post-space, resulting in three slices for
each specimen. The distances between the canal wall and the post perimeter were
measured on SEM images of each slice. Results: The fine grit tip + oval post group obtained statistically significant lower
cement thicknesses than the other groups (P< 0.05), in particular in the
apical third. The MtwoPF + circular post group showed the highest cement
thickness, comparable to that of the medium tip + oval post group.
A good post fitting in oval-shaped canals can be obtained using a fine grit
oval tip combined with oval posts. (Am J
Dent 2009;22:290-294).
Clinical
significance: When luting a fiber post in oval-shaped canals, the use of oval fiber posts
instead of circular posts may reduce the cement thickness around the post.
*:
Prof. Marco Ferrari, Department of Fixed Prosthodontics and Dental Materials,
School of Dental Medicine, Policlinico “Le Scotte”, University of Siena, Viale
Bracci, Siena, 53100, Italy. E-*: md3972@mclink.it
Review
Article
Effect of collagenase and
esterase on resin-dentin interface: A comparative
study between a total-etch adhesive
and a self-etch adhesive
Young-Jung Jung, dds, msd, phd, Hong-Keun Hyun, dds, msd, phd, Young-Jae Kim, dds, msd, phd
& Ki-Taeg Jang, dds, msd, phd
Abstract: Purpose: To examine the effects of collagenase and esterase
activity on the microtensile bond strength and nanoleakage at the resin-dentin
interfaces of two adhesive systems: a total-etch adhesive (Single Bond 2: SB)
and a self-etch adhesive (Clearfil SE Bond: SE). Methods: Resin composites were bonded to the occlusal dentin
surfaces of extracted human premolars with either SB or SE. The bonded teeth
were sectioned into beams and assigned to one of four storage conditions:
phosphate buffer solution (24 hours), phosphate buffer solution (4 weeks),
collagenase solution (4 weeks), or esterase solution (4 weeks). Microtensile
bond strength was evaluated and analyzed by two-way ANOVA. Failure mode was
analyzed under SEM, and nanoleakage was examined with TEM. Results: The bond strength of SE was superior to that of SB after
4-week storage in three aqueous solutions. Collagenase and esterase solutions
did not decrease the bond strength of SB any more than the phosphate buffer
solution (P> 0.05). In regard to SE, the bond strength after 4-week storage
in collagenase solution was lower than in the phosphate buffer solution (P<
0.05). TEM images revealed increasing tendency of nanoleakage in the bonded
interfaces after storage in collagenase and esterase solutions. (Am J Dent 2009;22:295-298).
Clinical significance: Collagenase
activity affected the dentin bond strength of the self-etch adhesive. However,
the self-etch adhesive presented more stable bonding than the total-etch
adhesive after 4-week storage in the aqueous solutions. Collagenase and
esterase activities seemed to increase the nanoleakage within the resin-dentin
interface.
*: Dr. Ki-Taeg Jang, Department of Pediatric Dentistry, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, 275-1, Yeongun-dong, Chongno-gu, Seoul, 110-768, South Korea. E -*: jangkt@snu.ac.kr
Review
Article
Hybrid Root SEAL
(MetaSEAL) creates hybrid layers in radicular
dentin only when EDTA is used as the final rinse
Luigi Pinna, dds, Robert J. Loushine, dds, Frank D. Bishop Jr., dmd, Elisabetta Cotti, dds, ms,
R. Norman Weller, dmd. ms, David H. Pashley, dmd, phd & Franklin R. Tay,
bdsc (hons), phd
Abstract: Purpose: To test if
the hybrid layer formation by Hybrid Root SEAL (Sun Medical Co.), a
4-META-containing auto-adhesive self-etching root canal sealer, is affected by
the sequence of irrigants employed for removing canal wall smear layers during
root canal treatment. Methods: Single-rooted teeth were shaped and irrigated with EDTA as initial rinse/NaOCl
as active final rinse (Group 1), or NaOCl as initial rinse/EDTA as active final
rinse (Group 2). All canals were obturated with Hybrid Root SEAL using a
single-cone technique. Root slices derived from the coronal, middle and apical
thirds of the roots were processed for transmission electron microscopy after
removing the gutta-percha, leaving the sealer intact. Additional filled canals
from the two groups were evaluated for fluid leakage. Results: Hybrid layer was absent in Group 1 and was present only
when a collagen matrix was produced by EDTA demineralization (Group 2).
Significantly more leakage (4.03 ± 1.94 µLmin-1 vs. 1.50 ± 0.42 µLmin-1; P< 0.05) was observed in the
absence of dentin hybridization. (Am J
Dent 2009;22:299-303).
Clinical significance: Hybridization of canal walls
improves the ability of Hybrid Root SEAL to prevent leakage. However, this is
only possible using irrigation regimes that incorporate EDTA as the active
final rinse. The self-etching root canal sealer is not aggressive by itself to
etch through thick canal wall smear layers and demineralize the underlying
intact dentin to create hybrid layers.
*: Dr.
Franklin Tay, Department of Endodontics, School of Dentistry, Medical College
of Georgia, Augusta, GA, 30912-1129, USA. E-*: ftay@mcg.edu
Review
Article
Optimum post and tooth root diameters for a cast
post-core system
Yong-Bin Mou, dss, mds, Ya-Ming Chen, dds, phd, Roger J. Smales, mds(hons), ddsc
& Kevin H-K. Yip, bds, phd, med, mmedsc
Abstract: Purpose: To investigate the optimum diameter for the tapered post
of a cast alloy post-core system relative to the root diameter, when measured
at the root face, that is required to minimize both post and root failures. Methods: 32 extracted maxillary central
incisor teeth were each decoronated perpendicular to the long axis at a point
Clinical
significance. The optimum tapered post diameter required to minimize
the likelihood of both cast post-core failures and catastrophic root fractures
was approximately one-quarter of the root diameter, when measured at the root
face.
*: Professor Ya-Ming Chen,
Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, College of Stomatology, Nanjing Medical
University, Nanjing 210029, PR China. E-*: yaming_chen@yahoo.com; kevin.yip@jcu.edu.au.
Review
Article
Comparing the effects of brushing with a
new gel-to-foam dentifrice
to brushing with regular fluoride control dentifrices
on viable bacteria
levels in saliva
David Santos, ba, Lyndsay Schaeffer, bs, phd, Laurence
Du-Thumm, bs, ms, phd, Mark
Vandeven, b eng, phd
Abstract: Purpose: To compare the effects of a new gel-to-foam dentifrice to
two standard fluoride control dentifrices on foam generation, levels of total
viable anaerobes and total viable volatile sulfur compound (VSC)-producing
bacteria in expectorate after brushing. Methods: 36 subjects participated in this investigator-blind, randomized, crossover
study. After a 1-week wash-out period prior to each product use, participants
reported to the test site having refrained from oral hygiene, eating and
drinking on the morning prior to the visit. Subjects brushed with a full ribbon
of assigned dentifrice (Aquafresh Iso-active, Aquafresh Extreme Clean or
Aquafresh Fresh & Minty), then expectorated the slurry into a collection
vessel after 30 and 60 seconds of supervised brushing. Total foam volume was
immediately measured. Subjects then rinsed with sterile water for 10 seconds
and expectorated into the same vessel, which was processed for microbiological
analysis. Total viable anaerobes and total viable VSC-producing bacteria were
enumerated using appropriate selective media. Results: No statistically significant difference was indicated
between the gel-to-foam dentifrice and either of the control dentifrices with
respect to the level of total viable anaerobes (P> 0.05). The level of total
viable VSC-producing bacteria was statistically significantly lower for the
gel-to-foam dentifrice (Aquafresh Iso-active) than for one of the control
dentifrices (Aquafresh Fresh & Minty) (P< 0.05), and numerically lower
for the gel-to-foam dentifrice than for the other control dentifrice (Aquafresh
Extreme Clean) (P= 0.0526). Use of the gel-to-foam dentifrice resulted in
statistically significantly greater (P< 0.05) foam generation than the two
control dentifrices. (Am J Dent 2009;22:315-320).
Clinical
significance: The results of this study showed that a new gel-to-foam dentifrice is not
significantly more effective in removing bacteria during brushing than standard
fluoride dentifrices.
*:
Dr. Diane Cummins, Colgate-Palmolive Technology Center, 909 River Road, PO Box
1343, Piscataway, NJ 08855-1343, USA. E-*: diane_cummins@colpal.com
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